Athletics
_
History
Dating back to the Ancient Greeks, athletics was
the only competition to be held in the first Olympic Games which took place in Athens in 776 BC. At that
time, the single athletic event was known as the ‘stade,’ a foot race which
covered the length of the Athenian Olympic stadium.
The Olympic Games continued to take place in Athens every four years, with all wars suspended for the duration of the games. Over time, more events were added to the ancient games including longer running distances, the discus, javelin, jumping and wrestling. The Roman Games also incorporated a form of athletics although the events favoured by the Romans were chariot racing, wrestling and most importantly gladiatorial combat and similarly the Celts, Teutons and Goths also took part in forms of athletic combat.
Athletics became more diverse during the Middle Ages when the sons of noblemen were trained in running, jumping and wrestling and there were often athletics contests between rival nobility. In the nineteenth century, the modern events that are familiar in athletics today began to emerge, initially as part of an official physical education programme in schools.
Schools began to organise competitive meets, the earliest of which took place in Exeter College, Oxford in 1850. The first modern Olympic Games took place in 1896 and athletics were the key element of the games, with the competition being divided into track and field events. In 1928 further progressions were made when women were allowed to partake in athletics competitions for the first time.
An international governing body of athletics, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), was established in 1912 which developed a number of international standards, rules and competitions and which has regulated the sport ever since. Today there are numerous events which combine to make up the sport of athletics. In competition, most of these events are carried out on a 400 m track or inside the track on a grass field. These tracks are situated in an indoor or outdoor stadium depending on the season.
Track Events Running events up to 10000m in distance are conducted on a 400 m track which is outdoors during summer competition and indoors during the winter. The track is made with a rubber surface to improve grip and lessen the risk of slipping in poor weather conditions. The track is an elongated oval shape, consisting of a semi-circle at either end and two straight segments joining the semi-circles together.
The track is split into six to ten lanes which circle around an inner field used for throwing and jumping events. Each runner is allocated a lane at the beginning of the race, with starting blocks marking the beginning of the race, although whether athletes are required to stay in lane for the duration of the race, depends on the distance being run.
The winner of all races conducted on the track is the first person whose torso crosses the finishing line. If hands, legs, head or feet cross the line before another contestant’s torso a win is not counted. A runner is disqualified from a race if they make two false starts, which are counted if they leave the starting blocks before the starting gun is fired. Running events on the track are split into different categories, distinguished by the distance being run. The categories are: short distance races, middle distance races and long distance races.
Short Distance Races
For the shortest running races, contestants must stay in lane at all times and will be disqualified if they change lanes. The short distance races consist of:
The middle distance races consist of:
Long Distance Races
The long distance races consist of:
Once the baton is passed, the runner who passed the baton must stay in lane until all other runners pass, to avoid obstructing another contestant. If the baton is dropped, the runner may pick it up but should not obstruct other runners when doing so. As well as the 4 x 100 m relay, other relay events that are commonly included in Athletics competitions are:
Whilst most athletic events take place on the track or field within an indoor or outdoor stadium, the races which cover longer distances take place on the road.
Marathon
The marathon is a race covering the distance of 42.195 km, which was first run by a Greek messenger in 490 BC. Whilst marathons usually take place independently from other athletics events, the marathon is included as an athletics event in the summer Olympic Games. The marathon is the ultimate challenge in endurance and strength, requiring the athlete to pace themselves from the beginning to avoid running out of energy and postponing the ‘wall’ stage, where athletes suffer extreme fatigue as glycogen levels run low.
Racewalking
Racewalking is a popular event world wide but it is usually only included in the major competitions, including the Olympics, the Commonwealth Games and the IAAF Athletics World Championships. Racewalking requires the athlete to cover a set distance as quickly as possible but unlike the running technique, the toe of the back foot is not permitted to leave the ground until the heel of the front foot makes contact with the ground, thus distinguishing the movement as a walk, despite the speed racewalkers use.
The athlete is also required to keep their supporting leg straight until the body passes over it, a rule that if violated is known as ‘lifting.’ In order to walk as quickly as possible, athletes move the pelvis as far forward as possible in order to propel the body along the ground at maximum speed. Racewalking events take place over 20 km for both male and female athletes and 50 km for male athletes only.
Field Events
Jumping Events
There are four jumping events in field athletics: high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault. There are four main principles which are applied to all jumping events:
High Jump
In the high jump event, athletes sprint down a runway towards a four metre long horizontal bar and jump vertically over the bar on to a cushioned mattress. The crossbar is increased in height as the competition progresses and more competitors are knocked out. There are various methods of jumping over the bar but the most common is known as the ‘Fosbury Flop,’ where the athlete curves the direction of the run during their last four strides, twisting over the bar and landing on to their back. Whatever their chosen method of jumping over the bar, all contestants are required to make the take off from one foot. Athletes are allowed to touch the crossbar as they jump over but if the bar falls off the vertical supports, the jump is classified as a failure. After three failed jumps a contestant is eliminated from the competition.
Long Jump
The long jump requires athletes to sprint down a runway and jump off a raised platform into a stretch of sand or other marked area, with the aim of landing as far from the starting point as possible. The distance travelled is measured by the first mark made by the athlete’s body in the sand on landing. The jump is classified as a fail if any part of the contestant’s body touches the ground between take-off and landing. The jump is also a fail if the athlete leaves the runway after the take-off line at the end of the take-off board.
Triple Jump
Also known as ‘the hop, step and jump’ the triple jump requires the athlete to begin with speed but to maintain energy for the take-off. The triple jump begins with a sprint down the runway and is followed by a hop, a step and a jump before the athlete propels their body into the air, with the aim of landing as far from the starting point as possible, in the same manner as the long jump. When the athlete hops, they must land on the same foot as they began sprinting on and the step should land on the opposite foot. As with the long jump, no part of the body must touch the ground between jumping and landing and the jump is classified as a fail if the athlete begins jumping after the take-off line.
Pole Vault
The pole vault requires the athlete to clear the height of a horizontal bar with the assistance of a vertical pole, with the bar increasing in height as more athletes are eliminated from the competition. The athlete begins the jump by sprinting down a runway and then plants the pole into a box in front of the bar, using the pole to power over the bar. As with the high jump, a pole vault is classified as a fail if the contestant knocks the bar down during the vault and after three failed attempts the athlete is then eliminated from the competition.
Throwing events
There are four different throwing events included in athletics competition which require athletes to demonstrate power, strength and accuracy. The four events are: the hammer, the discus, the javelin and the shot put.
Hammer
The ‘hammer’ is an extremely heavy metal ball weighing 7.2kg which is attached to a handle by a steel wire. The hammer event requires the contestant to have extreme strength and excellent technique, in order to throw the metal ball across the field. When making the throw the contestant must stand within a designated area, marked by a circle. If the athlete steps out of the circle during the throw or before the hammer lands, the throw is classified as a fail.
Discus
Making use of a spinning technique to bring about speed and strength, the discus requires the athlete to throw a disc shaped object across the field as far as possible. The athlete must begin the throw from a stationary position but there are no specified requirements for the method used to throw the discus. To make the throw the athlete stands within a circle marked on the ground and is forbidden to leave the circle before the discus has landed. If the contestant steps on or outside the circle, the throw is classified as a fail.
Javelin
The Javelin combines speed with great strength, requiring the athlete to throw a long spiked pole as far as possible across the field. The javelin has a grip, part way along the pole, which the athlete must hold on to when throwing. The javelin is thrown by an arm extended backwards, being thrown over the shoulder or upper part of the arm. For the throw to count, the javelin must land with the tip (front part of the javelin) hitting the ground before the tail (back part of the javelin) If the athlete turns their back to the throwing line during the throw or crosses the line during or after the throw, the throw is classified as a fail.
Shot Put
Requiring perhaps more strength than any other athletic event, the shot put requires the athlete to throw an extremely heavy ball across a specified distance by transferring leg strength up through the arms. The athlete is required to begin the throw from a stationary position within a marked circle and must throw the shot using one hand only. The contestant is disqualified if they leave the marked circle before the shot has touched the ground.
Mixed Events
Heptathlon
Combining seven different track and field events the heptathlon is an all-female event which tests the endurance, strength and all-round ability of the athlete, awarding contestants points in each event for their best performance. The heptathlon consists of the 100 m hurdles, the high jump, the shot put and the 200 m run on the first day of competition and the long jump, the javelin and the 800 m run on the second day.
Although on the whole most of the normal rules apply to each individual event included in the heptathlon there are some small variations. In the running events, athletes are permitted to make three false starts before being disqualified from the event. There are only three attempts allowed in each field event and should an athlete choose not to compete in one event, they are disqualified from the entire competition.
Decathlon
Like the heptathlon for female athletes, the decathlon tests the stamina and strength of male athletes through ten different track and field events spread over two days of competition, with points being awarded for the contestant’s best performance in each event. The decathlon consists of the 100m run, the long jump, the shot put, the high jump and the 400 m run on the first day and the 110 m hurdles, the discus, the pole vault, the javelin and the 1500 m run on the second day of the competition. The same rule variations apply to the decathlon as to the heptathlon.
The Olympic Games continued to take place in Athens every four years, with all wars suspended for the duration of the games. Over time, more events were added to the ancient games including longer running distances, the discus, javelin, jumping and wrestling. The Roman Games also incorporated a form of athletics although the events favoured by the Romans were chariot racing, wrestling and most importantly gladiatorial combat and similarly the Celts, Teutons and Goths also took part in forms of athletic combat.
Athletics became more diverse during the Middle Ages when the sons of noblemen were trained in running, jumping and wrestling and there were often athletics contests between rival nobility. In the nineteenth century, the modern events that are familiar in athletics today began to emerge, initially as part of an official physical education programme in schools.
Schools began to organise competitive meets, the earliest of which took place in Exeter College, Oxford in 1850. The first modern Olympic Games took place in 1896 and athletics were the key element of the games, with the competition being divided into track and field events. In 1928 further progressions were made when women were allowed to partake in athletics competitions for the first time.
An international governing body of athletics, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), was established in 1912 which developed a number of international standards, rules and competitions and which has regulated the sport ever since. Today there are numerous events which combine to make up the sport of athletics. In competition, most of these events are carried out on a 400 m track or inside the track on a grass field. These tracks are situated in an indoor or outdoor stadium depending on the season.
Track Events Running events up to 10000m in distance are conducted on a 400 m track which is outdoors during summer competition and indoors during the winter. The track is made with a rubber surface to improve grip and lessen the risk of slipping in poor weather conditions. The track is an elongated oval shape, consisting of a semi-circle at either end and two straight segments joining the semi-circles together.
The track is split into six to ten lanes which circle around an inner field used for throwing and jumping events. Each runner is allocated a lane at the beginning of the race, with starting blocks marking the beginning of the race, although whether athletes are required to stay in lane for the duration of the race, depends on the distance being run.
The winner of all races conducted on the track is the first person whose torso crosses the finishing line. If hands, legs, head or feet cross the line before another contestant’s torso a win is not counted. A runner is disqualified from a race if they make two false starts, which are counted if they leave the starting blocks before the starting gun is fired. Running events on the track are split into different categories, distinguished by the distance being run. The categories are: short distance races, middle distance races and long distance races.
Short Distance Races
For the shortest running races, contestants must stay in lane at all times and will be disqualified if they change lanes. The short distance races consist of:
- 100 m - The shortest running event in athletics, the 100 m sprint requires the athlete to start well, leaving the blocks with immense power and speed.
- 200 m - As with the 100 m, the 200 m requires instant acceleration but it also needs stamina to maintain the speed for the duration of the race.
- 400 m - The distance of one circuit around the track, the 400 m requires the athlete to have a good powerful start whilst maintaining enough stamina and energy to make a sprinting finish at the end of the race.
- 600 m (this is only included in Indoor Athletics competitions) - Sometimes considered a middle distance race, this is often raced by 400 m athletes to improve endurance or by 800 m athletes to improve speed.
The middle distance races consist of:
- 800 m - This consists of two circuits around the track, requiring the athlete to demonstrate good speed combined with endurance. In the 800 m the runner is required to stay in their allocated lane until the first curve of the track, when they are then allowed to change lanes, although if a runner deliberately obstructs another contestant they risk being disqualified from the competition.
- 1500 m - Also known as the metric mile, the 1500m race requires athletes to run 3.75 times around the track. It requires endurance in order that contestants maintain speed and have enough energy to make a final push to the finish line. Unlike the 800 m, runners can change lanes as soon as the race has started, although like all races, a contestant will be disqualified if they deliberately obstruct another runner.
- 1600 m - The Dream Mile. In the modern era this is the only distance that is recognised by the IAAF for record purposes. Made famous for the battle to break the four-minute barrier - the Mile is still run at a few events each year most notably at Oslo.
Long Distance Races
The long distance races consist of:
- 3000 m - A distance that is often run by runners who are comfortable at both 1500m and 5000m. Many see it as a hybrid event between middle and long distances and is characterised by fast finishes.
- 3000 m Steeplechase - Originating from a British event where runners raced between towns, from one church steeple to the next, the Steeplechase is a 3000 m race in which contestants run around the track encountering various obstacles over the course of the race. The obstacles consist of twenty eight different barriers and seven water jumps which are situated at different points on the track.
- 5000 m - Requiring extreme endurance and aerobic training the 5000 m requires athletes to run 12.5 times around the track. Unlike the short distance races, stamina is much more important than speed and athletes begin the race steadily in order to conserve energy for the duration of the race.
- 10000 m - The longest track event in athletics competition, the 10000 m requires intense training sessions in order that the athlete can build up the stamina and mental determination necessary to run the required 25 times around the track.
Once the baton is passed, the runner who passed the baton must stay in lane until all other runners pass, to avoid obstructing another contestant. If the baton is dropped, the runner may pick it up but should not obstruct other runners when doing so. As well as the 4 x 100 m relay, other relay events that are commonly included in Athletics competitions are:
- 4 x 200 m
- 4 x 400 m
- 4 x 800 m
- Distance Medley Relay: this consists of a 1200 m leg, a 400 m leg, an 800 m leg and a 1600 m leg to finish.
- Sprint Medley Relay: this consists of a 400 m leg, two 200 m legs and an 800 m leg to finish.
- 110 m hurdles - Designed for male competitors, the 110 m hurdle event consists of ten hurdles at 1.067 m high, with the first hurdle being placed 13.72 m from the starting block and the following nine hurdles placed at a distance of 9.14 m from each other.
- 100 m hurdles - Designed for female competitors, the 100 m hurdle event consists of ten hurdles at 84 cm high, with the first hurdle being placed 13 m from the starting block and the following nine hurdles placed at a distance of 8.50 m from each other.
- 400 m hurdles - this race is commonly run by both male and female athletes. It consists of ten hurdles.
Whilst most athletic events take place on the track or field within an indoor or outdoor stadium, the races which cover longer distances take place on the road.
Marathon
The marathon is a race covering the distance of 42.195 km, which was first run by a Greek messenger in 490 BC. Whilst marathons usually take place independently from other athletics events, the marathon is included as an athletics event in the summer Olympic Games. The marathon is the ultimate challenge in endurance and strength, requiring the athlete to pace themselves from the beginning to avoid running out of energy and postponing the ‘wall’ stage, where athletes suffer extreme fatigue as glycogen levels run low.
Racewalking
Racewalking is a popular event world wide but it is usually only included in the major competitions, including the Olympics, the Commonwealth Games and the IAAF Athletics World Championships. Racewalking requires the athlete to cover a set distance as quickly as possible but unlike the running technique, the toe of the back foot is not permitted to leave the ground until the heel of the front foot makes contact with the ground, thus distinguishing the movement as a walk, despite the speed racewalkers use.
The athlete is also required to keep their supporting leg straight until the body passes over it, a rule that if violated is known as ‘lifting.’ In order to walk as quickly as possible, athletes move the pelvis as far forward as possible in order to propel the body along the ground at maximum speed. Racewalking events take place over 20 km for both male and female athletes and 50 km for male athletes only.
Field Events
Jumping Events
There are four jumping events in field athletics: high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault. There are four main principles which are applied to all jumping events:
- Starting run - this is the period of time where the athlete gathers speed for the take-off. The faster the athlete runs, the more force there is to be converted into the jump.
- Take off - this is the transition between the run and the jump with the athlete propelling their body into the air. In the case of the triple jump the propulsion of the body is delayed with a hop, step and jump preceding the take off.
- Flight - this is the period of time when the body is airborne, sending them horizontally away from the starting point in the long jump or triple jump and vertically over the bar in the high jump.
- Landing - this is the point at which the athlete finishes the jump marking the distance (in the case of the long jump and triple jump) that they have travelled through the air. The landing area is a sand pit for the long jump and triple jump and a mattress for the high jump and pole vault.
High Jump
In the high jump event, athletes sprint down a runway towards a four metre long horizontal bar and jump vertically over the bar on to a cushioned mattress. The crossbar is increased in height as the competition progresses and more competitors are knocked out. There are various methods of jumping over the bar but the most common is known as the ‘Fosbury Flop,’ where the athlete curves the direction of the run during their last four strides, twisting over the bar and landing on to their back. Whatever their chosen method of jumping over the bar, all contestants are required to make the take off from one foot. Athletes are allowed to touch the crossbar as they jump over but if the bar falls off the vertical supports, the jump is classified as a failure. After three failed jumps a contestant is eliminated from the competition.
Long Jump
The long jump requires athletes to sprint down a runway and jump off a raised platform into a stretch of sand or other marked area, with the aim of landing as far from the starting point as possible. The distance travelled is measured by the first mark made by the athlete’s body in the sand on landing. The jump is classified as a fail if any part of the contestant’s body touches the ground between take-off and landing. The jump is also a fail if the athlete leaves the runway after the take-off line at the end of the take-off board.
Triple Jump
Also known as ‘the hop, step and jump’ the triple jump requires the athlete to begin with speed but to maintain energy for the take-off. The triple jump begins with a sprint down the runway and is followed by a hop, a step and a jump before the athlete propels their body into the air, with the aim of landing as far from the starting point as possible, in the same manner as the long jump. When the athlete hops, they must land on the same foot as they began sprinting on and the step should land on the opposite foot. As with the long jump, no part of the body must touch the ground between jumping and landing and the jump is classified as a fail if the athlete begins jumping after the take-off line.
Pole Vault
The pole vault requires the athlete to clear the height of a horizontal bar with the assistance of a vertical pole, with the bar increasing in height as more athletes are eliminated from the competition. The athlete begins the jump by sprinting down a runway and then plants the pole into a box in front of the bar, using the pole to power over the bar. As with the high jump, a pole vault is classified as a fail if the contestant knocks the bar down during the vault and after three failed attempts the athlete is then eliminated from the competition.
Throwing events
There are four different throwing events included in athletics competition which require athletes to demonstrate power, strength and accuracy. The four events are: the hammer, the discus, the javelin and the shot put.
Hammer
The ‘hammer’ is an extremely heavy metal ball weighing 7.2kg which is attached to a handle by a steel wire. The hammer event requires the contestant to have extreme strength and excellent technique, in order to throw the metal ball across the field. When making the throw the contestant must stand within a designated area, marked by a circle. If the athlete steps out of the circle during the throw or before the hammer lands, the throw is classified as a fail.
Discus
Making use of a spinning technique to bring about speed and strength, the discus requires the athlete to throw a disc shaped object across the field as far as possible. The athlete must begin the throw from a stationary position but there are no specified requirements for the method used to throw the discus. To make the throw the athlete stands within a circle marked on the ground and is forbidden to leave the circle before the discus has landed. If the contestant steps on or outside the circle, the throw is classified as a fail.
Javelin
The Javelin combines speed with great strength, requiring the athlete to throw a long spiked pole as far as possible across the field. The javelin has a grip, part way along the pole, which the athlete must hold on to when throwing. The javelin is thrown by an arm extended backwards, being thrown over the shoulder or upper part of the arm. For the throw to count, the javelin must land with the tip (front part of the javelin) hitting the ground before the tail (back part of the javelin) If the athlete turns their back to the throwing line during the throw or crosses the line during or after the throw, the throw is classified as a fail.
Shot Put
Requiring perhaps more strength than any other athletic event, the shot put requires the athlete to throw an extremely heavy ball across a specified distance by transferring leg strength up through the arms. The athlete is required to begin the throw from a stationary position within a marked circle and must throw the shot using one hand only. The contestant is disqualified if they leave the marked circle before the shot has touched the ground.
Mixed Events
Heptathlon
Combining seven different track and field events the heptathlon is an all-female event which tests the endurance, strength and all-round ability of the athlete, awarding contestants points in each event for their best performance. The heptathlon consists of the 100 m hurdles, the high jump, the shot put and the 200 m run on the first day of competition and the long jump, the javelin and the 800 m run on the second day.
Although on the whole most of the normal rules apply to each individual event included in the heptathlon there are some small variations. In the running events, athletes are permitted to make three false starts before being disqualified from the event. There are only three attempts allowed in each field event and should an athlete choose not to compete in one event, they are disqualified from the entire competition.
Decathlon
Like the heptathlon for female athletes, the decathlon tests the stamina and strength of male athletes through ten different track and field events spread over two days of competition, with points being awarded for the contestant’s best performance in each event. The decathlon consists of the 100m run, the long jump, the shot put, the high jump and the 400 m run on the first day and the 110 m hurdles, the discus, the pole vault, the javelin and the 1500 m run on the second day of the competition. The same rule variations apply to the decathlon as to the heptathlon.